The 5th International Symposium on Primatology and Wildlife Science

We report here that ability of information processing in single-celled organisms like amoebae (Physarum) and ciliates (Paramecium) is higher than we had thought. Physarum amoeba found the optimal path when it obtained the multiple locations of food. A simple mathematical model for the path finding was proposed in terms of differential equations. As well as the path-finding ability, the organism was able to anticipate the next timing of periodic climate change after experienced some periodic changes of climate, and to show a kind of behaviors that seemed to be ' indicisive ' when it encountered the presence of a chemical repellent, quinine. We indicated that a simple dynamics was enough to reproduce these observed behaviors. Mathematical modeling is helpful to understand the mechanism of behavioral smartness in slime mold.Capacity of memory and learning was also studied in ciliate, another major group of single-celled organism. We propose 'physical ethology' of cell.

The popular game known as Concentration, in which players search for matching pairs among a grid of face-down cards, provides a robust platform for examining visuospatial memory in a simple, nonverbal way. Orangutans(n=5) at the Indianapolis Zoo were given a modified version of the Concentration Game in which three cards were shown face-down on a computer screen, two of which matched each other while the third was a foil. Subjects overturned two cards at a time by touching them, with trials terminating in a food reward if the overturned cards matched, or reverting to their face-down position if they did not. A constraint was experimentally imposed on the game whereby the first two cards touched would never match, resulting in an optimal search strategy composed of touching the first two cards, followed by the third, followed by the card among the first two cards that matched the third. Findings showed that three of five subjects utilized the optimal search strategy more often than would be expected by chance, but also perseverated on specific patterns of choice sequences rather than flexibly adjusting behavior from trial to trial to minimize the overall number of card flips. The observed tendency of orangutans to rely on a prescriptive choice strategy instead of adaptively updating their solution in light of evidential developments is consistent with findings from prior studies on orangutan strategies for solving invisible displacement tasks.

Bushmeat is a meal in the Brazilian Amazon and primates are part of the menu. Acess to natural resources such as bushmeat is an important aspect not only in terms of food diversity but also in terms of culture. Prohibition and law enforcmente are insuficient to stop consumption of wild mammals such as primates. The consumption of bushmeat happens not only in community context but is present in local markets of small and medium sized cities. Population growth and agglomeration in cities, especialy in the western part of the Brazilian AmazonAmazonas State, has put pressure on wildlife. It is necessary to understand the market struture and cultural aspects in the contemporary urbanization process in the Amazon in order to build robust conservation politics. To do so we have investigated bushmeat market structure in the Brazil-Colombia-Peru border and in small towns along the Solimoes rivers relating quantity, price, species, hydrology and alimentary habits. Our results have shown that bushmeat market is strongly related to the hydrological system, to the fish market, to cultural habits more than to food security. The monetarization of social relations has permited the consolidation of bushmeat market in the Amazonian cities. The focus of the talk will be to present the results and open the debate on wildlife conservation in a context of bushmeat consumption.

The South American electric fish (Order Gymnotiformes) possess, among their principal diagnostic features, a specialized electrogenic tissue, an electric organ, that generates discharges continually, since from several hours after hatching throughout their entire lives. Concomitantly, the gymnotiforms also have, embedded in their skin, a collection of specialized electroreceptor organs, which monitor the strength (amplitude) and the timing (phase) of the electrical field generated by their electric organ, in the space surrounding the fish. Any type of interference in the otherwise normal pattern of the electric field detected by the array of electroreceptors may become relevant information, as it can imply prey or predator, large or small, soft or hard, fast or slow, or a conspecific male or female. Because the electric organ discharges (EODs) are so vital for the fish, EOD waveforms and their possible variations are of utmost evolutionary relevance, as they become key elements for co-specifics’ recognition, sexual selection, reproductive isolation, agonistic interactions, hierarchical settlements, as well as to broadcast internal physiological states, gender and ontogenetic stages. Electrodes placed in the water near the fish can easily capture the EODs of individual fish and the electric signal can be digitized and subsequently visualized at an oscilloscope screen, or played as a sound through a loudspeaker. As consequence, we can “see” and “hear” the EODs of the different species, in real time. This possibility allows us to envision several opportunities to utilize these fish to capture the interest and the curiosity of visitors in scientific exhibitions and museums. Our laboratory in the Amazon has been interested in several aspects of the evolutionary biology of electric fish, from molecular systematics, to biogeography, to behavioral physiology. We also use the electric fish as a biosensor do infer about water quality, once these fish change their EODs’ pattern according to physic-chemical status of the water. In this Symposium I will describe our current research interests on electric fish in the Amazon and present a compiled review of our most recent discoveries in each respective field.

Tusk is sexually monomorphic in the proboscideans that are ancestral to both the African elephant Loxodonta africana and Asian elephant Elephas maximus. Tusk continues to remain monomorphic in the African elephant but has become sexually dimorphic in the Asian elephant. Fisher proposed that sexually selected male display traits originate in both the sexes but are suppressed in the females by modifier genes, when the trait becomes deleterious to females. Thus, sexually antagonistic selection on a trait and sex-specific gene expression can lead to the evolution of sexual dimorphism. Tusk, therefore could be a sexually selected male trait that evolved according to the Fisherian model. Intriguingly, tuskless males occur at very high frequencies in some Asian elephant populations. The tusked and tuskless male morphs could be alternate male mating strategies, occurring at evolutionarily stable frequencies. Alternatively, the observed male tusk dimorphism, could be a consequence of artificial selection against tusked individuals, due to selective hunting of tusked males. Furthermore, male African elephants are more intensely poached for ivory than female elephants. Yet the frequency of tuskless individuals has increased more rapidly among females than in male African elephants. In essence, sexual dimorphism could be evolving among such poached populations. Empirical studies in an Asian elephant population also found that expression of musth in male elephants was a more important determinant of female choice as compared to possession of tusks. In this talk we discuss the evolutionary ecology of tusks in elephants, shaped through a combination of natural selection, sexual selection and artificial selection.

The fundamental approach to studying wildlife is the detailed direct observation of the study species. However, the direct observation of free-ranging animals is not always easy in their natural environment. This is especially the case for marine animals, which range widely over the open ocean and dive to great depths. To overcome the challenge of observing free-ranging marine animals, the National Institute of Polar Research has devoted its major effort toward the development of ‘bio-logging'. This approach uses small instruments (such as accelerometers or GPS recorders) that can be attached on animals to record their behaviour while moving freely. Now, the diversification and miniaturization of bio-logging instruments offers unique opportunities to study various biological aspects of wildlife in the ocean. Especially, recent developments in camera/video recorders open up new opportunities to study not only the behaviour, but also an animal's surrounding environment from an ‘animal's-eye' view. This enables us to integrate the behaviour and ecology of animals into its environmental/social context. I report such examples from our recent work on the foraging behaviour of penguins, which aims to better understand the effects of climate and marine environmental changes on Antarctic wildlife.

We use a variety of molecular approaches to address ecological and conservation questions. We have a developed a number of non-invasive sampling methods that take advantage of quantitative and traditional PCR for detection of species-specific markers from DNA found in the environment (eDNA). We have employed these techniques to investigate pathogens of amphibians as well as distribution and occupancy of amphibians. In addition, we have taken an eDNA approach to understand primate distribution and occupancy of New World primates by the sampling of plants putatively chewed by primates. Further, we have been using High-throughput DNA sequencing to understand the microbiome of primates and their potential for transference of bacteria to among congeners and other taxa. Maintenance of a species core microbiome may be important for individual long-term health and survival.

Great apes have a long evolutionary history of adjusting to fluctuating environments, but basic questions remain as to how gorillas and chimpanzees cope with modern environmental disturbances such as mechanized logging. Most studies of apes and forestry have compared areas with different logging histories, rather than documenting the responses of local ape populations to timber extraction as it occurs. In this study, we documented the arrival, progression, and departure of mechanized logging activities in an active forestry concession in northern Republic of Congo. Our aim was to not only document the impacts of logging on sympatric gorilla and chimpanzee populations, but also to determine the factors driving their abundance in the region. This was accomplished by surveying ape nests and human signs encountered along line transects over the course of an eight year study. A total of 12,467 ape nests were detected over 1,068 km of transects, and complemented by information on ape ecology from our ongoing study of habituated apes and tree distribution from forestry inventories. We found that abundance of chimpanzee nests was predicted by human impacts and feeding trees, and that gorilla abundance was predicted by stage of logging and heterogeneity of vegetation. Chimpanzees shifted away from forestry activities to nearby “refuge areas" of lower human disturbance, whereas gorillas were attracted to the dense undergrowth of previously logged forests. We also detected an enduring legacy of logging impacts on ape habitats and nesting. Together, these results demonstrate the importance of the ecological flexibility and advanced cognitive capacities of great apes in coping with environmental disturbance. However, the diverse community of primates residing in the Congo Basin are facing a myriad of threats to their long-term survival for which there is no historical precedent. Results of this research and additional field studies are being used to develop evidence-based conservation initiatives to mitigate these threats and ensure the preservation of our closest living relatives.

The world is changing rapidly and on September 30 ^th, 2014 the World Wildlife Fund announced that the world had lost 52% of is biodiversity. Primate species may also have been lost and it is estimated that close to 50% of the world’s primates are at risk of extinction, with 11% critically endangered. The rapid disappearance of tropical forests, the potential impacts of climate change, and the increasing threats to wildlife, makes it imperative that we quantify and better understand wildlife population dynamics. With long-lived animals this requires extensive, long-term data. Here I present data that spans up to 45 years at eight sites to document changes in monkey abundance in Kibale National Park, Uganda. The primates show a complex pattern of change that is dependent on site and species, but all species, except blue monkeys, have colonized extensive areas of regenerating forest, indicating that park-wide populations have been increasing since 1996 census. We consider these changes with respect to forest dynamics, climate change, and disease and evaluate the importance of these factors on global primate populations. While statistics on deforestation and primate population endangerment are grim, there have recently been positive conservation gains globally and, as an illustration of conservation methods and outcomes, I discuss the conservation efforts around Kibale National Park, Uganda.

In his seminal book, "The expression of the emotions in man and animals," Charles Darwin argued for apparent homologies between the emotions of humans and those of many other mammals, inferred from their behavioral expressions. However, some current views in psychology and neuroscience argue that we should not scientifically apply the word "emotion" to nonhuman animals at all. I disagree with this latter view, and will provide an initial sketch of emotions that considers them as functional states applicable to all complex animals. An essential part of this view is the need for strong distinctions between emotions, their behavioral expression, and their conscious experience. Another essential part of this view is the need for comparative studies across different species, in order to glean the general functional principles that characterize emotions.

For 30 years, primatologists have studied Tibetan macaques at the Valley of the Wild Monkeys, Mt. Huangshan, China. These combined data have yielded insights into the species’ ecology, behavior, and evolution. This talk highlights findings from the past 12 years of collaborative, international fieldwork focused on human-monkey interactions at this macaque tourism site. In the 1990s park staff designed provisioning and tourism programs intended to limit visitors’ opportunities to interact with monkeys and to encourage monkeys’ “natural” foraging and ranging behaviors. Our data collected from monkeys, visitors, and park staff indicate that some management methods are ineffective with respect to visitor safety, and range restriction practices curtail monkeys’ foraging and grooming patterns. The site layout intensifies macaque aggression and stress, particularly in one provisioning area that is flanked on two sides by visitors. Visitors largely ignore park staff’s admonitions against feeding monkeys, and park signage is ineffective in regulating visitor behaviors or informing visitors about ways to reduce negative interactions with monkeys. The majority of macaque-human interaction sequences in our dataset are instigated by visitors and are prolonged by their tendency to mimic monkeys’ threat behaviors, thereby escalating the intensity of the inter-species interaction, sometimes to the point of attack by the monkeys. Immature monkeys are sometimes the recipients of redirected adult male monkey aggression, particularly in the provisioning area where visitors most frequently provide monkeys with small quantities of nutrient-dense foods such as chips, candy, nuts, and fruit. Opportunities exist to better manage visitors’ behaviors and to improve what visitors learn about this monkey species and other wildlife. Implementation and monitoring of our recommendations may reduce the likelihood of negative encounters between visitors and aggressive monkeys, while reducing monkeys’ stress levels and facilitating more species-typical behaviors.

The flora of the Guiana Shield contains several plant lineages that are restricted to white-sand vegetation, some of which are widespread in tropical South America. Here, the history of diversification of one of these lineages, the genus Pagamea (Rubiaceae), is reconstructed through phylogenetic hypotheses. Data from chloroplast (rps16 and rpl20-rps12) and nuclear (ITS) markers were incongruent, with ITS found to be more consistent with morphological criteria to delimit species. Reconstruction of the ancestral area for the genus was ambiguous, with both the western Guiana Shield and the Atlantic coastal areas containing early divergent lineages, but most speciation events appeared to have happened in the western Guiana Shield where most extant diversity is present. Dispersal events into the western Amazon and the Andes (1.5-4.5Ma) and the eastern Guiana Shield (0.4-2.2Ma) were followed by speciation events in these regions. Dispersal events between the Amazon and Atlantic rainforest occurred at least three times independently. However, dispersals into new areas were limited, and most regions were found to be phylogenetically clustered. Altitudinal and habitat shifts happened multiple times independently, but ecological traits were found to be phylogenetically conserved, implying that such shifts were not the cause of lineage divergence. The result that most speciation events happened in the western Guiana Shield, where white-sand habitats predominate in both lowlands and highlands, and which has been less affected by Pleistocene climatic change, coupled with the result that ecological traits are phylogenetically conserved, suggests that the diversification of Pagamea may have been related primarily to the patchy distribution of white-sand vegetation.

Changes in land use patterns are responsible not only for almost 20% GHG emission but are also the leading cause of habitat fragmentation, which in turn is one of the leading causes of species extinction. The reduction in fallow time, a consequence of an increasing demand for agricultural land driven by demographic explosion, has overextended the shifting cultivation production model in the DRCongo. The rural migration that has picked pace over the past three decades has exacerbated the situation by taking a big toll on forested areas nearing major roads and cities especially Kinshasa whose impact is felt hundreds of kilometers away, as more and more, new spans of forested areas are converted into farm land and cut for charcoal production.

Massive effects of habitat fragmentation have occurred in the Amazon and in other parts of the tropical forests of the world including Southeast Asia with major consequences on biodiversity erosion, e.g. the dramatic decline of tigers’ populations in Sumatra. In contrast, it is often believed that Africa has been spared, probably because deforestation in the Congo Basin still occurs at smaller scales, to supply nearby cities in charcoal or cultivated products.

However, the effects of global changes have become more visible as scientists have developed new methods to quantify and map deforestation and predict their consequences. It is now clear that pressure is mounting, as population, urbanization, industrial agriculture (land grabbing) and mining activities are increasing. The situation could change rapidly and the coming years will be critical for forest resources of the Congo Basin.

It is therefore imperative that these perceived trends be curbed by tackling the problem at its roots: the land use and the production system by the communities.